Group/Individual
Level
There are several characteristics
of new technologies that affect the likelihood of their
being adopted. Research has illustrated that the higher
the innovation's score on each of these characteristics,
the more successful the implementation was likely to
be. Research has suggested that the first three to
be discussed here (relative advantage, compatibility,
and complexity) have the most significant relationships
with the adoption and implementation of technological
innovations.
- Relative
Advantage (Is it better?)
The relative advantage of a new technology is defined as the degree to
which the new equipment is perceived as being better than that which precedes it.
Therefore, if a personal computer is perceived as providing easier text entry and editing,
more flexibility in terms of document formats and preparation, and increased efficiencies
due to its ability to electronically transfer data between users, then its relative
advantage over manual typewriters is great. This will increase the likelihood of the PC
being adopted over the manual alternative.
- It is the notion of perceived advantage here that is most
important, not just objective advantage. If vendors of new technology sell people on
outlandish over-estimates of possible benefits, even if these benefits are never realised,
it is the expectation of realising these benefits that produces the perception of relative
advantage that, in turn, leads to the decision to innovate.
Relative advantage may be further subdivided into two
types: economic advantage and social advantage.
- Economic advantages. Although reductions in labour and
unit production costs are frequently cited to justify the purchase of new technology, new
technologies do not save money as frequently as people seem to expect. New technologies
do, however, provide other economic advantages allowing firms to stay competitive, to gain
significant competitive advantages, or new technologies may provide new opportunities to
make money.
- Social advantages. Quite frequently new technology is seen
as a way to increase prestige, personal power, and organisational status. Convenience and
satisfaction are also among the many personal and social advantages that will increase the
likelihood of the adoption of the new technology. If someone thinks that having a PC on
their desk enhances their image in some way, then they will be more likely to adopt the
technology and successfully use it.
An important thing to remember is that relative advantage
is not enough to assure successful adoption. It is a necessary, but not sufficient
pre-condition.
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- Compatibility
(Does it fit?)
Compatibility is defined
as the degree to which an innovation is consistent
with existing values, past experience, and current
needs. Of course, the more compatible a new technology
is with an organisation's needs, the more likely it
will be adopted. But if the innovation is not compatible
with the firm's culture, this will adversely effect
the likelihood and success of its adoption.
If an organisation is faced with this type of situation
and recognises potential incompatibility barriers, managers can take steps to change
attitudes and behaviours before the firm adopts the innovation.
Go to related information
on organisational
culture.
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- Complexity
(Can it be understood?)
Complexity is defined
as the degree to which a new technology is perceived
as relatively difficult to understand and to use.
If a technology is perceived as being too complex,
people will be less likely to try it. Many advanced
manufacturing technologies are frequently assumed
to be too complex by many firms. This inhibits the
rate of their adoption. Also, new technologies may
be so complex that they fail to satisfy the unrealistic
expectations of many of those who do decide to adopt
them.
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- Trialability
(Can it be tried?)
Trialability is the degree to which a new technology may be
experimented with on a trial basis. Trialability reduces uncertainty and greatly increases
the rate of adoption. An innovation with low trialability requires more implementation
planning and careful consideration.
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- Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems, for
example, are not trialable. They are too expensive and large to trial. Personal computers
and fax machines, on the other hand, are trialable. It is very easy, and relatively
inexpensive, to buy a single PC or fax machine and to try them out. Suppliers are
frequently sensitive to users' desires to "take it for a spin" before investing
in new technology. Do not be afraid to take advantage of this and exercise your
opportunity for trialability and experimentation.
Remember, however, our desire for trialability can lead
to problems. If we implement incrementally, we could end up with islands of automation. If
you adopt this strategy, plan for the technical leap that is frequently necessary for
later integration of these isolated systems.
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- Observability
(Can the operations and results be seen?)
Observability is the degree
to which the operations and results of a new technology
are observable to others. This may also be thought
of as the "black box" idea. Generally, the
more highly visible the operations and results of
a new technology the better. This reduced uncertainty
will be positively related to its rate of adoption.
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- The results of CIM are very observable. Therefore, if the
results are good, this is a major advantage. If the results of the CIM implementation are
less than attractive to employees and managers, however, this will negatively impact on
the success of the implementation. From a broader point of view, however, it is beneficial
to get the "bad news" sooner, rather than later. Highly visible systems and
results must be managed and implemented very carefully. As observability increases, so
does the need to trial or pilot-test the innovation.
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- Re-invention
(Can it be modified?)
A sixth characteristic
sometimes discussed in conjunction with the original
five is re-invention. Re-invention is defined as the
degree to which an innovation is changeable or modifiable
by users.
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- In the process of its adoption and implementation, certain
innovations can be more or less modified by the users. Clearly, if customisation and
incremental improvements via experimentation and adjustments are desired, technologies
that are more modifiable will be considered better and will more likely be successfully
adopted. However, if standardisation of procedures or outputs is the goal, then
technologies that are modifiable may be less attractive and more problematic.
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Copyright © 1999, 2000 Holistic Management Pty. Ltd.